Land use and land cover modification and its impact on biodiversity and the ecosystem services in District Kurram, Pakistan / Uso del suelo y modificación de la cobertura terrestre y su impacto en la biodiversidad y los servicios de los ecosistemas en el distrito de Kurram, Pakistán

Modifications of land use and vegetation cover are proceeding faster than ever before in human history, with a considerable reduction in forest cover in biodiversity hotspots. We investigated the land use and vegetation cover changes, their impact on biodiversity in the Kurram District, Pakistan, for 27 years (1989 to 2015). Temporal satellite imagery was processed using a supervised maximum likelihood classification algorithm in ARCGIS 10.1 to elucidate information regarding land use/land cover changes,with conducted structured interviews to obtain the inhabitants' perspectives on their dependence on ecosystems in Kurram, and how their environment is changing. We found that the land under forest cover and rangeland showed a remarkable decrease over the study period. This decline in rangeland and forest cover was a result of the increased of farmland, barren land. The study area is part of a biodiversity, with important medicinal, rare and unique plant species.

Las modificaciones del uso de la tierra y la cobertura vegetal están avanzando más rápido que nunca en la historia de la humanidad, con una reducción considerable de la cobertura forestal en los puntos críticos de biodiversidad. Investigamos el uso de la tierra y los cambios en la cobertura vegetal, su impacto en la biodiversidad en el distrito de Kurram, Pakistán, durante 27 años (1989 a 2015). Las imágenes satelitales temporales se procesaron utilizando un algoritmo de clasificación de máxima verosimilitud supervisada en ARCGIS 10.1 para dilucidar información sobre los cambios en el uso del suelo/cobertura del suelo, con entrevistas estructuradas realizadas para obtener las perspectivas de los habitantes sobre su dependencia de los ecosistemas en Kurram y cómo está cambiando su entorno. Descubrimos que la tierra cubierta por bosques y pastizales mostró una disminución notable durante el período de estudio. Esta disminución en los pastizales y la cubierta forestal fue el resultado del aumento de las tierras de cultivo, tierras estériles. El área de estudio es parte de una biodiversidad, con importantes especies de plantas medicinales, raras y únicas.

Non-invasive genetic sampling reveals a habitat use extension of Chrysocyon brachyurus and Leopardus guttulus inside a protected area of Southeastern Brazil / Amostragem genética não-invasiva revela uma extensão do uso de habitat por Chrysocyon brachyurus e Leopardus guttulus em uma área protegida do Sudeste do Brasil

Abstract Anthropogenic activities have modified landscapes leading to environmental damages and to a threatened biodiversity. As a result, protected areas have become the last refuge for many species. Protected areas surrounded by a highly modified landscape may accumulate species, especially large mammals, which may alter their habitual habitat use. Here we used non-invasive DNA analysis, molecular species identification, and landscape analyses to assess the habitat use of carnivore species in an isolated protected area, Itatiaia National Park (PNI). Two species were by far the most sampled within PNI, Chrysocyon brachyurus and Leopardus guttulus. The spatial distribution of each species was assessed to the following landscape variables: altitude; land use/land cover; slope and Euclidean distances from water and from urban buildings. The habitat use of C. brachyurus and L. guttulus was related to altitude and land use/land cover. We tested whether there were differences in the environmental indicators considering both species, which showed that higher altitudes, forest and/or grassland formation were indeed associated with them. We highlighted the unprecedented presence of both species at altitudes up to 2,631 meters. Our results suggest a habitat use extension for both species inside the PNI that could be a consequence of the highly modified landscape where PNI is inserted. Therefore, the results can be helpful for better understanding the species dynamics and their conservation in the face of landscape changes. Further, this study may be of help for management and conservation policies of this emblematic protected area.

Resumo As atividades antropogênicas modificaram as paisagens levando a danos ambientais e a uma biodiversidade ameaçada. Como resultado, as áreas protegidas se tornaram o último refúgio para muitas espécies. Áreas protegidas cercadas por uma paisagem altamente modificada podem acumular espécies, especialmente grandes mamíferos, o que pode alterar o uso de seu habitat habitual. Neste trabalho, usamos análise de DNA não-invasivo, identificação molecular de espécies e análises de paisagem para avaliar o uso de habitat de carnívoros em uma área protegida isolada, o Parque Nacional de Itatiaia (PNI). Duas espécies foram de longe as mais amostradas dentro do PNI, Chrysocyon brachyurus e Leopardus guttulus. A distribuição espacial de cada espécie foi avaliada com as seguintes variáveis paisagísticas: altitude; uso e cobertura do solo; declividade e distâncias euclidianas da água e de construções urbanas. O uso de C. brachyurus e L. guttulus no habitat estava relacionado à altitude e ao uso e cobertura do solo. Testamos se existiam diferenças nos indicadores ambientais considerando ambas as espécies, o que mostrou que altitudes mais elevadas, formação de florestas e/ou campestres estavam de fato associadas a elas. Destacamos a presença incomum de ambas as espécies em altitudes de até 2.631 metros. Nossos resultados sugerem uma extensão do uso do habitat conhecido para ambas as espécies como possível consequência da paisagem altamente modificada onde o PNI está inserido. Portanto, os resultados podem ser úteis para entender melhor a dinâmica das espécies e sua conservação diante das mudanças na paisagem. Além disso, este estudo pode ser útil para as políticas de manejo e conservação desta emblemática área protegida.

Caracterización espacial de la ganadería bovina en la Orinoquia colombiana / Spatial characterization of the bovine livestock in the Colombian Orinoquia

RESUMEN Objetivo. Utilizar los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) como herramienta complementaria para caracterizar la ganadería bovina realizada en la región de la Orinoquia. Materiales y métodos. A través del uso de tecnologías espaciales se recopiló la información concerniente a la orientación ganadera, fisiografía, cobertura vegetal y catastro de la zona de estudio para su posterior análisis a través del software ACCESS de Microsoft. Resultados. En un alto porcentaje de los predios ganaderos ubicados en los cuatro departamentos de la Orinoquía (Casanare:72.7%, Meta:49.5%, Arauca:42% y Vichada:32%) predominan las coberturas de pastos, herbazales y vegetación secundaria, confirmando la expansión en la frontera agropecuaria que es promovida por la actividad ganadera en el país. Conclusiones. El uso de los SIG, permite realizar una mejor planificación y distribución eficiente de los recursos destinados a mejorar el funcionamiento de los sistemas de producción. Por ejemplo, en zonas donde la matriz de coberturas predominante son los pastizales y herbazales, las estrategias en pro de la sostenibilidad pueden enfocarse en la implementación de sistemas silvopastoriles, contrario a lo que pasaría en zonas donde la matriz de coberturas tenga un alto porcentaje de bosques naturales.

ABSTRACT Objective. Use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) as a complementary tool to characterize cattle farming in the Orinoquia region. Materials and methods. Through the use of space technologys, information concerning the livestock orientation, physiography, vegetation cover and land registry of the study zone was collected for further analysis over Microsoft ACCESS software. Results. In a high percentage of the cattle ranches located in the four departments (Casanare: 72.7%, Meta: 49.5%, Arauca: 42% and Vichada: 32%) the cover of pastures, grasslands and secondary vegetation predominates, confirming the expansion in the agricultural border that has had the cattle activity in the country. Conclusions. The use of complementary tools such as GIS allows for better planning and efficient distribution of resources to improve the functioning of production systems, for example, in zones where the predominant coverage matrix is grasslands, strategies in pro of sustainability can focus on the implementation of silvopastoral systems, contrary to what would happen in areas where the matrix has a high percentage of natural forests.

Assessment of TerraClass and MapBiomas data on legend and map agreement for the Brazilian Amazon biome

Reliable environmental monitoring and evaluation require high-quality maps of land use and land cover. For the Amazon biome, the TerraClass and MapBiomas projects apply different methodologies to create these maps. We evaluated the agreement between land cover and land use maps generated by TerraClass and MapBiomas (Collections 2 and 3) for the Brazilian Amazon biome, from 2004 to 2014. Specifically, we: (1) described both project legends based on the LCCS (Land Cover Classification System); (2) analyzed the differences between their classes; and (3) compared the mapping differences among the Brazilian states that are totally or partially covered by the Amazon biome. We compared the classifications with a per-pixel approach and performed an evaluation based on agreement matrices. The overall agreement between the projects was 87.4% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 2) and 92.0% (TerraClass x MapBiomas 3). We analyzed methodological differences to explain the disagreements in class identification. We conclude that using these maps together without a properly adapted legend is not recommended for the analysis of land use and land cover change. Depending on the application, one mapping system may be more suitable than the other. (AU)

Landuse Pattern and Landcover of Akure Forest Reserve and Its Environs

This study investigated the pattern of land use and land cover of forest reserve in Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. Currently, deforestation constitutes one of the global development challenges. The broad objective of this study is to identify land use and land cover class within the study area using satellite imagery (ies) to determine the rate/trend of change of this Forest Reserve from 1988 to 2018. The research method includes the use of Geographical Positioning System, and processing of field data through GIS and Remote sensing tool (ILWIS). The research was able to identify various land use and land cover within the Akure forest reserve with the help of GIS and remote sensing tools, the boundary of Akure forest reserve and its environs was delineated, and further result of the classification of Landsat shows that as at 2018 the forest reserve is covered with majorly light vegetation with 51.79%. The study recommended that there Department of Forestry and Ministry of Physical Planning and Urban Development must ensure Policy that will encourage local people and institutional participation in forestry management and conservation along with safeguarding indigenous people’s traditional rights and tenure with rightful sharing of benefits.

Clasificación y mapeo automático de coberturas del suelo en imágenes satelitales utilizando Redes Neuronales Convolucionales / Classification and automatic mapping of land covers in satellite images using Convolutional Neural Networks / Classificação e mapeamento automático de coberturas do solo em imagens de satélite usando redes neurais convolucionais

Resumen La clasificación de cobertura del suelo es importante para estudios de cambio climático y monitoreo de servicios ecosistémicos. Los métodos convencionales de clasificación de coberturas se realizan mediante la interpretación visual de imágenes satelitales, lo cual es costoso, dispendioso e impreciso. Implementar métodos computacionales permite generar clasificación de coberturas en imágenes satelitales de manera automática, rápida, precisa y económica. Particularmente, los métodos de aprendizaje automático son técnicas computacionales promisorias para la estimación de cambios de cobertura del suelo. En este trabajo se presenta un método de aprendizaje automático basado en redes neuronales convolucionales de arquitectura tipo ConvNet para la clasificación automática de coberturas del suelo a partir de imágenes Landsat 5 TM. La ConvNet fue entrenada a partir de las anotaciones manuales por medio de interpretación visual sobre las imágenes satelitales con las que los expertos generaron el mapa de cobertura del parque nacional el Tuparro, de los Parques Nacionales Naturales de Colombia. El modelo de validación se realizó con datos de los mapas de coberturas del Amazonas colombiano realizado por el Sistema de Información Ambiental de Colombia. Los resultados obtenidos de la diagonal de la matriz de confusión de la exactitud promedio fue de 83.27% en entrenamiento y 91.02% en validación; para la clasificación en parches entre Bosques, áreas con vegetación herbácea y/o arbustiva, áreas abiertas sin o con poca vegetación y aguas continentales.

Abstract Land cover classification is important for studies of climate change and monitoring of ecosystem services. Conventional coverage classification methods are performed by the visual interpretation of satellite imagery, which is expensive and inaccurate. Implementing computational methods could generate procedures to classify coverage in satellite images automatically, quickly, accurately and economically. Particularly, automatic learning methods are promising computational methods for estimating soil cover changes. In this work we present an automatic learning method based on convolutional neural networks of ConvNet type architecture for the automatic classification of soil coverings from Landsat 5 TM images. The ConvNet was trained from the manual annotations by means of visual interpretation on the satellite images with which the experts generated the map of Tuparro national park, of National Natural Park of Colombia. The validation model was performed with data from the Colombian Amazon cover maps made by the Colombian Environmental Information System. The results obtained from the diagonal of the confusion matrix of the average accuracy were 83.27% in training and 91.02% in validation; for the classification in patches between forests, areas with herbaceous and / or shrub vegetation, open areas with or without vegetation and Inland waters.

Resumo A classificação da cobertura da terra é importante para estudos de mudanças climáticas e monitoramento dos serviços dos ecossistemas. Os métodos convencionais de classificação de cobertura são feitos através da interpretação visual de imagens de satélite, que é caro, dispendioso e impreciso. Implementar métodos computacionais poderia gerar procedimentos de classificação de cobertura em imagenes de satélite de forma automática, rápida, precisa e econômica. Particularmente, métodos de aprendizado de máquina são promissores métodos computacionais para estimar a cobertura do solo mudanças. Neste artigo apresentamos um método de aprendizado de máquina baseado em convolutional neural tipo ConvNet rede de arquitetura para a classificação automática de cobertura do solo a partir de Landsat 5 imagens TM. O ConvNet foi treinado desde anotações manuais através da interpretação visual das imagens de satélite que os especialistas geraram o mapa de cobertura do Parque Nacional Tuparro, Colômbia Parque Nacional Natural. A validação do modelo foi realizada com cobertura de mapa de dados da Amazônia colombiana pelo Sistema de Informação Ambiental da Colômbia. Os resultados da diagonal da matriz de confusão da precisão média foi de 83,27% e Formação e 91,02% na validação; para a classificação em manchas entre florestas, áreas com vegetação herbácea e / ou arbusto, áreas abertas com poucamou nenhuma vegetação águas interiores.

Using indigenous knowledge to link hyper-temporal land cover mapping with land use in the Venezuelan Amazon: "The Forest Pulse" / Utilización de conocimiento indígena para relacionar el mapeado hiper-temporal de coberturas de suelo con el uso del territorio en el Amazonas venezolano: "El Pulso del Bosque"

Abstract:Remote sensing and traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) can be combined to advance conservation of remote tropical regions, e.g. Amazonia, where intensive in situ surveys are often not possible. Integrating TEK into monitoring and management of these areas allows for community participation, as well as for offering novel insights into sustainable resource use. In this study, we developed a 250 m resolution land-cover map of the Western Guyana Shield (Venezuela) based on remote sensing, and used TEK to validate its relevance for indigenous livelihoods and land uses. We first employed a hyper-temporal remotely sensed vegetation index to derive a land classification system. During a 1 300 km, eight day fluvial expedition in roadless areas in the Amazonas State (Venezuela), we visited six indigenous communities who provided geo-referenced data on hunting, fishing and farming activities. We overlaid these TEK data onto the land classification map, to link land classes with indigenous use. We characterized land classes using patterns of greenness temporal change and topo-hydrological information, and proposed 12 land-cover types, grouped into five main landscapes: 1) water bodies; 2) open lands/forest edges; 3) evergreen forests; 4) submontane semideciduous forests, and 5) cloud forests. Each land cover class was identified with a pulsating profile describing temporal changes in greenness, hence we labelled our map as "The Forest Pulse". These greenness profiles showed a slightly increasing trend, for the period 2000 to 2009, in the land classes representing grassland and scrubland, and a slightly decreasing trend in the classes representing forests. This finding is consistent with a gain in carbon in grassland as a consequence of climate warming, and also with some loss of vegetation in the forests. Thus, our classification shows potential to assess future effects of climate change on landscape. Several classes were significantly connected with agriculture, fishing, overall hunting, and more specifically the hunting of primates, Mazama americana, Dasyprocta fuliginosa, and Tayassu pecari. Our results showed that TEK-based approaches can serve as a basis for validating the livelihood relevance of landscapes in high-value conservation areas, which can form the basis for furthering the management of natural resources in these regions. Rev. Biol. Trop. 64 (4): 1661-1682. Epub 2016 December 01.

Resumen:La teledetección y el conocimiento ecológico tradicional (CET) se pueden combinar para avanzar en la conservación de regiones tropicales remotas como la Amazonía, donde la toma de datos intensiva in situ a menudo es imposible. Integrar el CET en el seguimiento y el manejo de estas áreas permite la participación de la comunidad, y ofrece nuevos puntos de vista sobre el uso sostenible de los recursos naturales. En este estudio se desarrolla un mapa de cobertura del suelo del Escudo Guayanés (Venezuela), con una resolución espacial de 250 m, basado en datos de teledetección, y se utiliza el CET para validar su relevancia en relación con la subsistencia de los pueblos indígenas y el uso que éstos hacen del territorio. En primer lugar se ha empleado un índice de vegetación basado en teledetección hiper-temporal para realizar una clasificación del territorio. Durante una expedición fluvial de 8 días, a lo largo de 1 300 km por áreas sin carreteras en el Estado Amazonas (Venezuela), se han visitado seis comunidades que han proporcionado datos geo-referenciados sobre sus actividades cinegéticas, pesqueras y agrícolas. Estos datos de CET se han superpuesto al mapa de clasificación, con el fin de relacionar las clases de coberturas con los usos indígenas. Se han caracterizado las clases de cobertura en función de patrones de cambio temporal del verdor y la topo-hidrografía, y se han propuesto 12 tipos de cobertura del suelo, agrupadas en cinco tipos principales de paisaje: 1) masas de agua; 2) campo abierto/ márgenes del bosque; 3) bosques siempre-verdes; 4) bosques semi-caducifolios submontanos; y 5) bosques nublados. Cada clase de cobertura del suelo se ha identificado con un perfil pulsátil que describe cambios temporales en el verdor, de ahí que el mapa haya sido titulado "El Pulso del Bosque". Estos perfiles de verdor han mostrado una tendencia ligeramente ascendente, durante el periodo 2000 a 2009, en las clases que representan pastizales y zonas de matorral, así como una tendencia ligeramente decreciente en las clases que representan bosques. Este hallazgo es compatible con la ganancia de carbono en los pastizales como consecuencia del calentamiento del clima, y también con una cierta pérdida de vegetación en los bosques. De este modo, nuestra clasificación muestra potencial para la evaluación de efectos futuros del cambio climático sobre el paisaje. Algunas clases han resultado estar significativamente relacionadas con la agricultura, la pesca, la caza como práctica general, y más concretamente con la caza de primates, de Mazama Americana, Dasyprocta fuliginosa, y Tayassu pecari. Los resultados demuestran la utilidad de las aproximaciones basadas en CET como base para validar la importancia del paisaje, en áreas con alto valor de conservación, para la supervivencia de las personas, lo que proporciona una base para avanzar en el manejo de los recursos naturales en estas regiones.

Distribuição da população e cobertura da terra: o lugar das Áreas Protegidas no Pará, Brasil em 2010 / Population distribution and land cover: the protected areas in Pará, Brazil in 2010 / /Distribución de la población y cobertura de la tierra: el lugar de las Áreas Protegidas en Pará, Brasil en 2010

O objetivo deste artigo é analisar a distribuição da população do Pará, a partir de dados do Censo Demográfico 2010 associados a dados de uso e cobertura da terra do TerraClass, dispostos em uma grade estatística. Verifica-se o papel de 113 Áreas Protegidas (AP) - 46 Terras Indígenas, 51 Unidades de Conservação de Uso Sustentável e 16 Unidades de Conservação de Proteção Integral - no gradiente rural-urbano do ponto de vista populacional e em relação aos usos-coberturas da terra nelas existentes. Utilizando um Sistema de Informações Geográficas, os dados relativos às APs, ao uso e cobertura da terra e os censitários foram incorporados à grade estatística. O relacionamento espacial dos planos de informação nas células indica que a população do estado é bastante concentrada, uma tendência que se reproduz nas Áreas Protegidas (o coeficiente de Gini para a distribuição dos domicílios é superior a 0,9). As APs configuram-se como áreas menos populosas e mais florestadas em comparação ao restante do estado. Apesar da presença de extensas porções sem domicílios ocupados e da maior extensão de florestas do Pará (57%), identificam-se nestas áreas usos urbanos associados a outros usos e coberturas da terra. Os resultados indicam que as dinâmicas populacionais e as mudanças nos usos e cobertura da terra estão relacionadas de forma mais ampla, estimulando a reflexão sobre a urbanização e as mudanças no uso e cobertura da terra de forma mais integrada...

The objective of this study is to analyze population distribution in the state of Pará in Brazil using data from the2010 Population Census in association with the land use and land cover data from TerraClass arranged in a statistical grid. The role of 113 Protected Areas (including 46 Indigenous Lands, 51 Sustainable Use Conservation Units and 16 Integral Protection Conservation Units) is analyzed from the standpoint of their demographic rural-urban gradients and in terms of their land use cover. Information on the use and cover of land in Protected Areas along with census data were incorporated into a statistical grid using GIS. The spatial relationship of information layers in the cells indicates that the state's population is highly concentrated in a few areas, a pattern that is reproduced to some extent in the Protected Areas (Gini coefficient for the distribution of households is higher than 0.9). The area of the Protected areas is less populated and retains a greater extension of forested areas, by comparison to the state. Despite having extensive segments devoid of occupied households and the largest expanse of forest coverage (57%) in the state, Protected Areas also have urban areas associated with other uses and land cover change. The results indicate that population dynamics and changes in the uses and covering of land are related in a broader manner, thereby suggesting the need for reflection on urbanization and changes in land use and land cover change within a more integrated approach...

El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar la distribución de la población del estado de Pará en Brasil a partir de información del Censo Demográfico de 2010 asociada a datos de uso y cobertura de la tierra provenientes de TerraClass, dispuestos en una cuadrícula estadística. Se examina el papel que desempeñan 113 Áreas Protegidas, 46 Tierras Indígenas, 51 Unidades de Conservación de Uso Sustentable y 16 Unidades de Conservación de Protección Integral en el gradiente rural-urbano desde el punto de vista de la población y en relación con los usos y la cobertura de la tierra existentes en ellas. La información relativa a las Áreas Protegidas, al uso y la cobertura de la tierra y los datos censales fueron incorporados a la cuadrícula estadística usando un Sistema de Información Geográfica. La relación espacial entre los estratos de información en la cuadrícula indica que la población del estado está bastante concentrada, una tendencia que se reproduce en las Áreas Protegidas (el coeficiente de Gini de la distribución de las viviendas es superior a 0,9). Las Áreas Protegidas se configuran como zonas menos pobladas y con más forestación que el resto del estado. A pesar de la presencia de extensas áreas sin viviendas ocupadas y de la mayor extensión de los bosques de Pará (57%), se identifican en estas áreas usos urbanos asociados a otros usos y coberturas de la tierra. Los resultados indican que las dinámicas de la población y los cambios en los usos y la cobertura de la tierra están relacionados de manera más amplia, estimulando por lo tanto una reflexión más integrada sobre la vinculación entre la urbanización y estos cambios...

The impact of land use/cover structure and changes on plague prevalence of Spermophilus Dauricus plague foci in Chifeng City, Inner Mongolia / 中华地方病学杂志

Objective To study the relationship between land use/cover structure and changes and risk of plague prevalence.Methods Chifeng,Aohan,Alukeerqin and Wengniute were selected as typical areas of Spermophilus Dauricus plague foci in Inner Mongolia,density of Spermophilus Dauricus,plague epidemic and land use data in 1986,1995,2000 were collected,and risk of plague prevalence was represented by the density of Spermophilus Dauricus and epizooty of Spermophilus Dauricus.The percentage of land type structure,change degree of integrated land cover,division index of grassland for plague suitable habitat were calculated with ArcGIS 9.3.The relationship between the land use,cover change and the plague epidemic were analyzed by the methods of comparative.Results From 1982 to 2000,the density of Spermophilus Dauricus was lower than 0.4/hm2 and no epizooty of Spermophilus Dauricus was observed both in Aohan Banner and Chifeng City,which indicated low risk of plague prevalence.Contrarily,from 1982 to 2000,the density of Spermophilus Dauricus was higher than 1.0/hm2,and epizooty of Spermophilus Dauricus was prevalent in Alukerqin Banner,which implied high risk of plague prevalence.In Wenguiute Banner,the density of Spermophilus Dauricus was lower than 0.3/hm2 from 1982 to 1990,after then showed a rising trend,reached higher than 1.0/hm2 in 1991,1995-1997,and epizooty of Spermophilus Dauricus was also monitored,which denoted high risk of plague prevalence;In 1986,1995 and 2000,the proportions of grassland of Wengniute Banner,Alukerqinqi Banner (51.36％,49.14％,48.28％;56.97％,57.48％,57.44％) were much higher than Chifeng and Aohan Banner (35.99％,33.24％,32.95％;38.94％,34.46％,31.31％),but those of arable land (16.81％,18.78％,20.22％;13.28％,14.92％,15.15％) were lower than Chifeng and Aohan Banner (39.73％,42.25％,42.67％;41.21％,43.99％,49.53％).The highest of comprehensively dynamic degree of land cover changes appeared in Aohan Banner,and it was 0.53 and 1.11 in 1986 vs.1995 and 1995 vs.2000,respectively,and the lowest in Alukeerqin Banner,it was 0.22 and 0.05 during those periods.The grassland division index in Alukeerqin Banner was the lowest,which was 0.29 in 1986,0.28 in 1995,and 0.29 in 2000.The grassland division index was higher and showed a upward trends in Aohan Banner,which was 0.57 in 1986,0.69 in 1995 and 0.71 in 2000.Conclusion There is a certain relation between risk of plague prevalence and land use/cover structure and changes.

Ecology of Land Cover Change in Glaciated Tropical Mountains

Tropical mountains contain unique biological diversity, and are subject to many consequences of global climate change, exasperated by concurrent socioeconomic shifts. Glaciers are in a negative mass balance, exposing substrates to primary succession and altering downslope wetlands and streams. A review of recent trends and future predictions suggests a likely reduction in areas of open habitat for species of high mountains due to greater woody plant cover, accompanied by land use shifts by farmers and pastoralists along the environmental gradients of tropical mountains. Research is needed on the biodiversity and ecosystem consequences of successional change, including the direct effects of retreating glaciers and the indirect consequences of combined social and ecological drivers in lower elevations. Areas in the high mountains that are protected for nature conservation or managed collectively by local communities represent opportunities for integrated research and development approaches that may provide ecological spaces for future species range shifts.

Las montañas tropicales incluyen una singular diversidad biológica sujeta a las numerosas consecuencias del cambio climático global, exacerbado por concurrentes cambios socio-económicos. Los glaciares están en un balance negativo de su masa, promoviendo la exposición de los suelos a la colonización primaria, y alterando pantanos y riachuelos en las partes bajas. Revisiones de las tendencias actuales y predicciones sugieren que las especies de alta montaña sufrirían una reducción en las áreas de hábitats abiertos, debido al incremento en la cobertura de plantas leñosas, acompañado por los cambios en el uso del paisaje causados por agricultores y pastores a lo largo de las gradientes ambientales en las montañas tropicales. Es necesaria la investigación de las consecuencias en la biodiversidad y en los ecosistemas por causados por los cambios sucesionales, incluyendo los efectos directos del retroceso de los glaciares y las consecuencias indirectas de la acción combinada de factores sociales y ecológicos que ocurren en altitudes inferiores. Las áreas protegidas en las altas montañas usadas en la conservación de la naturaleza o manejadas colectivamente por comunidades locales representan oportunidades donde puede integrarse investigación y planes de desarrollo que podrían proveer espacios ecológicos para los futuros desplazamientos de los rangos de distribución de las especies.

Identification and characterization of deforestation hot spots in Venezuela using MODIS satellite images / Identificação e caracterização dos hot spots do desmatamento na Venezuela a partir de imagens de satélite MODIS

Land cover changes over time as a result of human activity. Nowadays deforestation may be considered one of the main environmental problems. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize changes to forest cover in Venezuela between 2005-2010. Two maps of deforestation hot spots were generated on the basis of MODIS data, one using digital techniques and the other by means of direct visual interpretation by experts. These maps were validated against Landsat ETM+ images. The accuracy of the map obtained digitally was estimated by means of a confusion matrix. The overall accuracy of the maps obtained digitally was 92.5%. Expert opinions regarding the hot spots permitted the causes of deforestation to be identified. The main processes of deforestation were concentrated to the north of the Orinoco River, where 8.63% of the country's forests are located. In this region, some places registered an average annual forest change rate of between 0.72% and 2.95%, above the forest change rate for the country as a whole (0.61%). The main causes of deforestation for the period evaluated were agricultural and livestock activities (47.9%), particularly family subsistence farming and extensive farming which were carried out in 94% of the identified areas.

Cobertura do solo muda ao longo do tempo como resultado da atividade humana. Hoje em dia desmatamento pode ser considerado como um dos principais problemas ambientais. O objetivo deste estudo foi identificar e caracterizar as mudanças de cobertura florestal na Venezuela entre 2005-2010. Dois mapas de hot spots desmatamento foram gerados com base em dados MODIS, um usando técnicas digitais e outros, por meio de interpretação visual direta por especialistas. Estes mapas foram validados contra imagens Landsat ETM +. A exactidão do mapa obtidos digitalmente foi estimada por meio da matriz de confusão. A exatidão global do mapa de hot spots obtido digitalmente foi de 92,5%. Uma análise sobre os hot spots feita por especialistas permitiu identificar as causas do desmatamento. Os principais processos de desmatamento foram concentrados para o norte do rio Orinoco, onde estão localizadas 8,63% das florestas do país. Nesta região, alguns lugares registou uma taxa média anual de mudança de floresta entre 0,72% e 2,95%, acima da taxa de variação da floresta para o país como um todo (0,61%). As principais causas de desmatamento para o período avaliado foram as atividades agrícolas e pecuária (47,9%), a agricultura familiar e a agricultura extensiva, que são realizadas em 94% das áreas identificadas.

Dinâmicas no uso e cobertura da terra: perspectivas e desafios da Demografia / /Land use and land cover dynamics: prospects and challenges for demography / /Dinámicas en el uso y cobertura de la tierra: perspectivas y desafíos de la Demografía

Pensando de forma integrada a relação população-ambiente, o artigo aborda os estudos sobre dinâmica populacional e mudança no uso e cobertura da terra, com foco na contribuição e nos desafios da Demografia. Aproximando-se do tema em meados dos anos 1990, a Demografia teve como principal contribuição destacar a importância dos componentes populacionais nos modelos, antes, colocados como secundários e sob uma perspectiva simples. Demógrafos brasileiros dedicados a questões ambientais, embora tivessem prioritariamente a temática urbana no seu escopo, colaboraram de maneira indireta para a desenvoltura do campo, ao proporem uma releitura sobre relações população-ambiente. O artigo parte do caso da Amazônia brasileira, mostrando como a população foi explorada nas teorias sobre mudanças nos usos e coberturas da terra, passando pelo viés do crescimento populacional durante o período de fronteira agrícola, o modelo de ciclo de vida do domicílio (fecundidade e composição do domicílio) na década de 1990 e, mais recentemente, o enfoque no componente migratório. Para a Demografia, aponta-se como essencial o aprofundamento nos elementos demográficos que não o volume e a inclusão do espaço e seus efeitos. Para a construção da Ciência da Mudança da Terra, destacam-se a incorporação de dinâmicas urbanas nas investigações, a adoção de uma metodologia multiescalar e o exercício do diálogo entre as diversas disciplinas, incorporando mais sistematicamente a contribuição da Demografia...

This paper is about studies on the relationships between environment and population from an integrated perspective, and changes in the use of the land cover, focusing on the contributions and challenges for demography. Demography approached this issue in the mid-1990s and its main contribution was to highlight the importance of population components in the models, which, until then, had been presented mainly from a simple perspective and as secondary components. Although Brazilian demographers dedicated to environmental issues were studying primarily urban themes, they collaborated indirectly to the field by proposing new ways of thinking about relations between population and environment. This paper is based on the Brazilian Amazon Region and shows how the population has been considered in theories about changes in the uses and cover of the land. Growth related to the expansion of the agricultural frontiers has also been treated, as well as the model of the household life cycle (fertility and household composition) in the 1990s and, more recently, a focus on the migration component. For demography, the article argues how essential it is to broaden studies on demographic elements, rather than their volume and space, and its effects. For the construction of Land Change Science, the author insists on the importance of urban dynamics in research, the adoption of a methodology and the exercise of dialogue among the various fields of study, incorporating the contribution of demography more systematically.

Pensando de forma integrada la relación población-ambiente, el artículo aborda los estudios sobre dinámica poblacional y cambio en el uso y cobertura de la tierra, con enfoque en la contribución y en los desafíos de la Demografía. Aproximándose al tema hacia mediados de los años 1990, el principal aporte de la Demografía fue el de destacar la importancia de los componentes poblacionales en los modelos, antes colocados como secundarios y desde una perspectiva simple. Demógrafos brasileños dedicados a temas ambientales, aunque su propósito prioritario fuese la temática urbana, colaboraron de manera indirecta para la desenvoltura del campo, al proponer una relectura sobre relaciones población-ambiente. El artículo parte del caso de la Amazonía brasileña, mostrando cómo la población fue explorada en las teorías sobre cambios en los usos y coberturas de la tierra, pasando por el abordaje del crecimiento poblacional durante el periodo de frontera agrícola, el modelo de ciclo de vida del domicilio (fecundidad y composición del domicilio) en la década de 1990 y, más recientemente, el enfoque en el componente migratorio. Para la Demografía se señala como esencial la profundización en los elementos demográficos que abarcan más que el volumen y la inclusión del espacio y sus efectos. Para la construcción de la Ciencia del Cambio de la Tierra se destacan la incorporación de dinámicas urbanas en las investigaciones, la adopción de una metodología de múltiples escalas y el ejercicio del diálogo entre las diversas disciplinas, incorporando más sistemáticamente el aporte de la Demografía...

Relative Efficiency of Surface Energy Partitioning Over Different Land Covers.

Aims: In this paper, we aim to assess different parameterization schemes for quantifying the surface energy portioning process, in particular, the latent and sensible heat fluxes, and their applicability to various surface cover types. Study Design: This study intercompares theoretical models that predict the relative efficiency of the latent heat (evapotranspiration) with respect to the sensible heat flux. Model predictions are compared with field measurements over surface covers with different physical characteristics and soil water availability. Place and Duration of Study: This study was carried out at the Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, between August 2012 and December 2012. Methodology: Three theoretical models for prediction of the relative efficiency of the latent heat were investigated, based on the lumped heat transfer (Priestley), the linear stability analysis (LSA) and the maximum entropy principle (MEP), respectively. Model predictions were compared against field measurements over three different land cover types, viz. water, grassland and suburban surfaces. An explicit moisture availability parameter β is incorporated in the MEP model, to facilitate direct comparison against the LSA and field measurements. Standard post-processing and quality control were applied to field measured turbulent fluxes using the eddy-covariance (EC) technique. To be consistent with the premise of all theoretical models, diurnal series of sensible and latent heat fluxes were filtered such that only data points under convective conditions were selected. Results: Among all three models, the application of Priestley model is restricted to saturated land surfaces, and generally overestimates the relative efficiency of the latent heat for water-limited surfaces. The LSA and MEP models predict similar β ranges, i.e., 0.05-0.3 in summer and 0.1-0.7 in winter over suburban area, and 0.1 to 0.5 over lake surface. Over vegetated surfaces, the MEP model predicts a reasonable β range around unity by taking transpiration into consideration, while the LSA model consistently underestimated the relative efficiency. Conclusion: Moisture availability plays an essential role in regulating the surface energy partitioning process. The introduction of the moisture availability parameter enables versatile theoretical models for latent heat (and evapotranspiration) predictions over a wide range of land cover types. This study provides a physical insight into the thermodynamics mechanism governing the surface energy balance, and the potential to develop novel surface energy parameterization schemes based on the concept of relative efficiency. The MEP model is found to have the greatest potential in terms of future theoretical model development.

Larval habitats of mosquito fauna in Osogbo metropolis, Southwestern Nigeria

Objective:To determine the larval habitats of mosquito fauna and possible impact of land use/land cover changes on the epidemiology of mosquito-borne diseases in Osogbo metropolis, Southwestern, Nigeria. Methods: All accessible larval habitats were surveyed between May and September, 2011 in Osogbo metropolis while Land Use/ Land cover of the city was analyzed using 2 Lansat Multispectral Scanner satellite imagery of SPOT 1986 and LANDSAT TM 2009. Results:A total of six species namely, Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes vittatus, Anopheles gambiae complex, Culex quinquefasciatus and Eretmapodite chrysogaster were encountered during the study. The occurrence and contribution of disused tyres was significantly higher (P0.05). The accessible land use/land covered of the study area between 1986 and 2009 showed that the wet land coverage and settlement area increased from 0.19 to 9.09 hectare and 1.00 to 2.01 hectare respectively while the forest area decreased from 60.18 to 50.14 hectare. Conclusion: The contribution of the habitats coupled with the increasing rate of flooded environment which could provide ample breeding sites for mosquitoes call for sustained environmental sanitation and management in Osogbo metropolis.

Simulating future urban growth in the city of Kahramanmaras, Turkey from 2009 to 2040.

City of Kahramanmaras has witnessed a rapid growth in the last five decades due to its agricultural and industrial potential. Urbanization has brought great challenges to the sustainable development of cities, especially in developing countries. A modeling system that could provide regional assessments of future development and explore the potential impacts of different regional management scenarios would be useful for the future health of the cities. The main goal of this study was to create a modeling system capable of depicting, quantitatively and graphically, the growth impacts of two land use policies and trends in the city of Kahramanmaras. Given its success with regional scale simulation, its ability to incorporate different levels of land protection through an “excluded” layer, and the relative ease of implementation and computation, the model developed by Keith Clarke from University of California at Santa Barbara, known as SLEUTH, was adopted for this study. SLEUTH is a pixel-based cellular automaton (CA) model and has been applied to several cities worldwide successfully. The model was calibrated using historic time series of developed areas derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery between 1984 and 2009, and future growth was projected out to 2040. Two alternative growth scenarios were modeled: (1) current trends, and (2) managed growth: regions with high landscape potential were protected from urbanization. This application of the SLEUTH model demonstrates an ability to address a range of regional planning issues and provides useful information for the cities’ future planning and development.

Exploring the association between Trypanosoma cruzi infection in rural communities and environmental changes in the southern Gran Chaco

The association between land use and land cover changes between 1979-2004 in a 2.26-million-hectare area south of the Gran Chaco region and Trypanosoma cruzi infection in rural communities was analysed. The extent of cultural land, open and closed forests and shrubland up to 3,000 m around rural communities in the north, northwest and west of the province of Córdoba was estimated using Landsat satellite imagery. The T. cruzi prevalence was estimated with a cross-sectional serological survey conducted in the rural communities. The land cover showed the same patterns in the 1979, 1999 and 2004 satellite imagery in both the northwest and west regions, with shrinking regions of cultured land and expanding closed forests away from the community. The closed forests and agricultural land coverage in the north region showed the same trend as in the northwest and west regions in 1979 but not in 1999 or 2004. In the latter two years, the coverage remote from the communities was either constant or changed in opposite ways from that of the northwest and west regions. The changes in closed forests and cultured vegetation alone did not have a significant, direct relationship with the occurrence of rural communities with at least one person infected by T. cruzi. This study suggests that the overall decrease in the prevalence of T. cruzi is a consequence of a combined effect of vector control activities and changes in land use and land cover.

Spatial and temporal land cover changes in Terminos Lagoon Reserve, Mexico

Terminos Lagoon ecosystem is the largest fluvial-lagoon estuarine system in the country and one of the most important reserves of coastal flora and fauna in Mexico. Since the seventies, part of the main infrastructure for country’s oil extraction is located in this area. Its high biodiversity has motivated different type of studies including deforestation processes and land use planning. In this work we used satellite image analysis to determine land cover changes in the area from 1974 to 2001. Our results indicate that tropical forest and mangroves presented the most extensive losses in its coverage. In contrast, urban areas and induced grassland increased considerably. In 2001 more than half of the ecosystem area showed changes from its original land cover, and a third part of it was deteriorated. The main causes of deforestation were both the increase in grassland and the growth of urban areas. However, deforestation was attenuated by natural reforestation and plant canopy recovery. We conclude that the introduction of cattle and urban development were the main causes for the land cover changes; however, the oil industry activity located in the ecosystem, has promoted indirectly to urban growth and rancher boom. Rev. Biol. Trop. 58 (2): 565-575. Epub 2010 June 02.

El ecosistema de Laguna de Términos es el más grande sistema fluvio lagunar estuarino del país y una de las reservas más importantes de flora y fauna costera en México. Desde la década de los setentas, parte de la infraestructura necesaria para la explotación del petróleo en el país se encuentra localizada en esta área. Su importante biodiversidad ha motivado diferentes estudios en el área que incluyen procesos de deforestación y ordenamiento del territorio. Se realizó un análisis de imágenes de satélite para determinar los cambios de uso del suelo y vegetación en el área entre 1974 y 2001. Los resultados indican que la selva tropical y el mangle presentan las mayores pérdidas de cobertura. En contraste, las áreas urbanas y los pastos inducidos han incrementado considerablemente su extensión. En el año 2001 más de la mitad del área ocupada por el ecosistema mostró cambios en sus coberturas originales y una tercera parte estaba deteriorada. La deforestación fue causada principalmente por el incremento de los pastizales y el crecimiento de las áreas urbanas. Sin embargo, estas pérdidas fueron atenuadas por la regeneración natural. Se concluye que la introducción de pasto para la ganadería y el desarrollo urbano fueron las principales causas de los cambios de uso de suelo, sin embargo, la industria petrolera asentada en el ecosistema ha fomentado indirectamente el crecimiento urbano y el auge ganadero.

Cobertura e uso do solo e sua influência na ocorrência de raiva nos municípios de Jacareí e Santa Branca, Vale do Paraíba, Estado de São Paulo, entre 2002 e 2009 / Influence of landscape and land use on the occurrence of rabies in the municipalities of Jacareí and Santa Branca, Vale do Paraíba, State of São Paulo, between 2002 and 2009

Objetivo: Realizou-se um estudo, no período de 2002 a 2009, com a finalidade de verificar se as mudanças nas classes de cobertura da terra e no uso do solo podem exercer influência na ocorrência da raiva, nos municípios de Jacareí e de Santa Branca, situados na Região do Vale do Paraíba, no Estado de São Paulo, Sudeste do Brasil. Métodos: A ferramenta utilizada para avaliar estas alterações foi o sensoriamento remoto, através de imagens de satélite Land-sat. Para pesquisar a presença do vírus da raiva (RABV) foram coletados animais silvestres atropelados nas rodovias, morcegos encontrados na área urbana em atitude suspeita, morcegos hematófagos da espécie Desmodus rotundus e animais de interesse econômico (ADIE) que vieram a óbito por enfermidade com sintomatologia nervosa. O material coletado, sistema nervoso central (SNC), desses animais foi encaminhado para o laboratório de referência nacional, o Instituto Pasteur de São Paulo (IP-SP) e para o Laboratório de Sanidade Animal da Agência Paulista de Tecnologia dos Agronegócios (APTA)- Pólo Regional do Vale Paraíba (PRDTA/VP) - Pindamonhangaba-SP. A determinação da presença do antígeno viral foi feita através da prova de imunofluorescência direta (IFD) e o isolamento do vírus através da inoculação intracerebral em camundongos (IC). Os inóculos das amostras foram submetidos à prova de reação em cadeia pela polimerase transcriptase reversa (RT-PCR) para verificar a presença do vírus da raiva. Resultados: No período de estudo tivemos a ocorrência de dez casos da doença, sendo três em morcegos insetívoros na zona urbana de Jacareí, e sete em ADIE, sendo dois, em Jacareí e cinco, em Santa Branca. Todos os animais silvestres terrestres examinados foram negativos para a presença do vírus da raiva em todas as provas realizadas (IFD, IC, RT-PCR)...

Objective: This study was carried out during the period of 2002-2009, with the purpose to verify whether the changes in types of land cover and in land use can influence the occurrence of rabies in Jacareí and Santa Branca, situated in the Vale do Paraíba, State of São Paulo, southeastern brazil. Methods: The tool used to evaluate these alterations was the remote sensing through images of satellite land-sat. In order to search for the presence of rabies virus, brain materials were collected from wild animals roadkilled in highways, bats found in the urban area in suspicious attitude, desmodus rotundus hematophagous bats captured in rural areas and farm animals of economic importance (aei) dead with suspect of rabies. For rabies diagnosis, specimens of central nervous system (cns) of these animals were sent to the Pasteur Institute of São Paulo (IP-SP) - national reference laboratory and to the laboratory of animal Paulista Agency for Agribusiness Technology (APTA) - Polo Valley Regional of Paraíba (PRDTA / VP), in Pindamonhangaba, state of SP. The presence of viral antigen was determined by the direct fluorescent antibody technique (D-FAT) and the isolation of the virus by means of intracerebal mouse inoculation test (MIT). The brain suspensions were submitted to reverse transcriptase. Polymerase chain reaction to check the presence of rabies virus. Results: In the period of study, 10 positive cases were detected, being 3 in insectivorous bats in the urbane zone of jacareí, and 7 in aei, being 2 in jacareí and 5 in santa branca. All the terrestrial wild animals examined were negative for the presence of rabies virus in all tests performed (d-fat, mit, and rt-pcr)...

Recent changes in landscape-dynamics trends in tropical highlands, Central Mexico / Cambios recientes de la dinámica del paisaje en tierras altas del trópico, Centro de México / Mudanças recentes nas tendências da dinâmica de paisagens do México Central.

Recent trends in landscape dynamics were investigated in various forest ecosystems along the Tuxpan river basin (1887.5km²; 620-3640masl) in the State of Michoacan, Mexico. Landscape maps were developed from the interpretation, in GIS-ILWIS ver. 3.0, of land covers corresponding to four different dates (1976-2000), and the typology was based on origin vegetation, physiognomic development and permanence of the land-use disturbance. Maps were cross-related and calculations were derived on surfaces, percent change and mean annual transformation rate, and transition matrices were obtained so as to identify the main change processes. In order to explain the distribution of landscape-dynamics patterns, a landscape geography method was applied using relief units and potential vegetation as the bases for determining landscape systems. The study area comprises three landscape-dynamics patterns: i. fir forest in high volcanic peaks (>3100masl), highly preserved but showing a trend towards an increase in traditional agriculture and deforestation; ii. pine-oak forests in volcanic slopes and peaks (1900-3100masl) and tropical dry forest on sedimentary basement (<1700masl) showing a high deforestation and heavy use, with a trend towards abandonment of crops, expansion of shrublands/grasslands and scarce forest regeneration; and iii. pine-oak forest in low volcanic slopes (1700-2600) with the highest inherited modifications and a trend towards land-use intensification in human settlements and forest plantations.

Se estudiaron las tendencias recientes de la dinámica del paisaje en distintos ecosistemas forestales de la cuenca del río Tuxpan (1887,5km² y 620-3640msnm), en el estado de Michoacán, México. Los mapas de paisajes se obtuvieron a partir de la interpretación, en SIG-ILWIS ver. 3.0, de las coberturas del suelo en cuatro fechas (1976-2000). Para la tipología se consideró el origen, desarrollo fisonómico de la vegetación y permanencia del disturbio asociado al uso del suelo. Los mapas se cruzaron entre sí, se calcularon superficies, porcentajes de cambio e índices de transformación media anual y se elaboraron matrices de transición para identificar los principales procesos de cambio. Para explicar la distribución de la dinámica del paisaje se aplicó un método de la geografía del paisaje que utiliza las unidades del relieve y la vegetación potencial para determinar sistemas de paisajes. El área comprende 3 patrones de dinámica del paisaje: i. abetal de altas cumbres volcánicas (>3100msnm) con alta conservación, pero tendencia al incremento del cultivo tradicional y la deforestación; ii. bosques de pino-encino de cumbres y de laderas volcánicas altas (1900-3100) y selva baja caducifolia del basamento sedimentario (<1700) con alta deforestación e intensificación del uso, pero tendencia al abandono del cultivo y expansión de la vegetación secundaria; y iii. bosque de pino-encino de laderas volcánicas bajas (1700-2600) con la mayor transformación heredada y tendencia a la intensificación del uso del suelo en asentamientos humanos y plantaciones forestales.

Estudaram-se as tendências recentes da dinâmica da paisagem em distintos ecossistemas florestais da bacia do rio Tuxpan (1887,5km² e 620-3640msnm), no estado de Michoacán, México. Os mapas de paisagens se obtiveram a partir da interpretação, em SIG-ILWIS ver. 3.0, das coberturas do solo em quatro datas (1976-2000). Para a tipologia se considerou a origem, o desenvolvimento fisionômico da vegetação e a permanência do distúrbio associado ao uso do solo. Os mapas se cruzaram entre si, se calcularam superfícies, porcentagens de mudança e índices de transformação média anual; foram elaboradas matrizes de transição para identificar os principais processos de mudança. Para explicar a distribuição da dinâmica da paisagem se aplicou um método da geografia da paisagem que utiliza as unidades de relevo e a vegetação potencial para determinar sistemas de paisagens. A área compreende três padrões de dinâmica da paisagem: i. abetal de altos cumes vulcânicos (>3100msnm) com alta conservação, mas tendência ao incremento do cultivo tradicional e ao desflorestamento; ii. bosques de pinho-encino de cumes e de ladeiras vulcânicas altas (1900-3100) e selva baixa caducifólia do basamento sedimentário (<1700) com alto desflorestamento e intensificação do uso, mas tendência ao abandono do cultivo e expansão da vegetação secundária; e iii. bosque de pinho-encino de ladeiras vulcânicas baixas (1700-2600) com a maior transformação herdada e tendência à intensificação do uso do solo em assentamentos humanos e plantações florestais.